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A The New Science of Learning Developed by Professor Terry Doyle Ferris State University www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com doylet@ferris.edu
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Slides are available for download at: www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com
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Neuron Connections
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Neuron Networks
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A New Paradigm A new paradigm is needed for how students see their responsibilities for learning— 1. The behaviors that are needed to be ready to learn. 2. Following the research for how they take in, process and retrieve information.
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Preparing to Learn Findings from neuroscience over the past decade has led to a new paradigm concerning improving students’ learning. The simple but important shift is our understanding is ---that if the brain is prepared to learn greater success can be expected.
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Preparation for Learning Means Learners Have Addressed these Five Areas The brain needs to function effectively: 1. Hydration 2. Diet (glucose) 3. Exercise 4. Sleep 5. Oxygen
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Hydration and the Brain One of the most fascinating aspects of neurons is that they store water in tiny balloon-like structures called vacuoles. Water is essential for optimal brain health and function (Norman ,2012)
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Hydration and the Brain Water is needed for the brain's production of hormones and neurotransmitters which key the brain’s communication system. Nerve transmission requires one-half of all the brain’s energy. (Allen, Advanced Learning and Development Institute)
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Hydration and the Brain Even mild dehydration can influence mood, energy levels and the ability to think clearly. (Armstrong, 2012).
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Why the Brain Needs Water Dehydration can impair short-term memory function and the recall of long-term memory. (Gowin, 2010)
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Diet and Learning The brain requires about 22 times as much energy to run as the equivalent in muscle tissue. The energy required to run every bodily process comes from the food we eat. (Navarrete and colleagues, 2011).
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The Brains Energy Source The foods we consume greatly affect brain function, including everything from learning and memory to emotions. (Molteni R, Barnard RJ, Ying Z, Roberts CK, Gómez-Pinilla F., 2002).
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Diet and Learning Diets that are high in saturated fat have been shown to reduce molecular substrates that support cognitive processing and increasing the risk of neurological dysfunction in humans. (Molteni R, Barnard RJ, Ying Z, Roberts CK, Gómez-Pinilla F., 2002).
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Diet and Learning A high-fat, refined sugar diet reduces hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neuronal plasticity, and learning (Molteni R, Barnard RJ, Ying Z, Roberts CK, Gómez-Pinilla F., 2002).
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Diet and Learning In the May 2001 issue of Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Gold, and McNay reported "Glucose enhances learning and memory not only in rats but also in humans.”
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Diet and Learning For learners, this research implies that the contents and timing of meals may need to be coordinated to have the most beneficial cognitive effects that enhance learning. (Gold, and McNay,2001)
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Web MD Food Recommendations for Health Brain Function Blueberries Avocadoes Dark Chocolate Nuts and seeds Beans Fresh brewed Tea Whole Grains Wild Salmon
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Exercise, Learning and Memory
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Movement and Learning Natural selection developed a human brain to solve problems of survival in outdoor, unstable environments while in almost constant motion. (Medina, 2008)
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Movement and Learning Our brains were shaped and sharpened by movement We continue to require regular physical activity in order for our brains to function optimally. (Raichlen and Polk, 2013)
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Exercise and Learning Exercise is the single most important thing a person can do to improve their learning. (John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain)
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FNDC5 and Breaking a Sweat Research has discovered that exercise stimulates the production of a protein called FNDC5 that is released into the bloodstream. FNDC5 stimulates the production of another protein in the brain BDNF, which in turns stimulates the growth of new nerve cells and synapses – the connection points between nerve cells whose capacity and efficiency underlie superior intelligence. (Journal of Cell Metabolism, 2013)
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Exercise Stimulates Synaptic Growth . “It thus provides more generalizable benefits “
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Breaking a Sweat And Learning In particular, your memory and ability to learn get a boost from exercise. Journal of Cell Metabolism, 2013
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How does Exercise Boost Learning? Exercise increases production of neurotransmitters that help: 1.Attention/Focus/Concentration 2. Motivation for learning 3. Patience/time on task 4. Mood (more optimistic) (Ratey, 2008) Energy Calm
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Exercise Increases Production of BDNF BDNF (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor ) Enhances the wiring of neurons. (Ratey, 2008) Miracle Gro for the Brain
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Exercise Produces BDNF Make new learning easier Improves brain health Is a stress inoculator Makes the brain cells more resilient (Ratey, 2008)
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BDNF and Exercise “In particular BDNF seems to be important for long term memories” (Ratey, 2008)
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Cognitive Benefits in a Pill Researchers from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute at Harvard Medical School (HMS) have also discovered that it may be possible to capture these benefits o f BDNF in a pill. The same protein that stimulates brain growth via exercise could potentially be bottled and given to patients experiencing cognitive decline, including those in the beginning stages of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. (Bruce Spiegelman of Dana-Farber and HMS and Michael E. Greenberg, PhD, chair of neurobiology at HMS.)
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Exercise, Stress and Learning Toxic levels of stress erode the connections between the billions of nerve cells in the brain. Also chronic depression shrinks certain areas of the brain. (Jesper Mogensen , Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen.
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Exercise, Stress and Learning Conversely exercise unleashes a cascade of neurochemicals and growth factors that can reverse this process, physically bolstering the brain's infrastructure. (Jesper Mogensen , Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen.
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Exercise and Stress "In fact, the brain responds like muscles do, growing with use and withering with inactivity. Exercise causes neurons (dendrites) to grow and bloom, thus enhancing brain function at a fundamental level." Jesper Mogensen ,Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen
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Short Term Stress Acute stress activates selective CRH molecules (corticotropin) releasing hormones, which disrupt the process by which the brain collects and stores memories. (Baram,2010)
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How Sleep Affects Learning and Memory
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Sleep, Memory and Learning 50 to 70 million adults in the United States alone have a sleep or wakefulness disorder, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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How Sleep Affects Learning and Memory
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Sleep and Brain Health 1n 2012 University of Rochester neurosurgeon Maiken Nedergaard, identified the brain’s waste-removal mechanism the “glymphatic system.” The glymphatic system relies on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to flush out neurotoxins via pathways separate from the lymphatic system. (Journal of Science, 2013)
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Sleep and Brain Health Among the toxins that are flushed is beta amyloid, a protein that’s found in clumps in the brains of Alzheimer’s sufferers.
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Sleep and Brain Health In 2013, Nedergaard’s research team followed up on this discovery by identifying “hidden caves” that open in the brain while we sleep, allowing cerebrospinal fluid to flush out neurotoxins through the spinal column. (Journal of Science, 2013)
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Sleep and Brain Health The implications of this research can’t be overstated: failing to get enough sleep isn’t just a bad idea for all of the reasons we already know, but over time it could also lead to neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s.
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Sleep and Brain Health Sleep loss undermines our ability to think clearly. Studies have shown that one night without sleep, for example, impairs a person's driving ability nearly as much as if they were legally drunk. Dr. Ron Szymusiak, a sleep neurobiologist at the University of California-Los Angeles-
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Memories are Made During Sleep Most sleep researchers now agree that sleep plays an important role in the formation of long term memories . (Stickgold, 2005).
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Memories and Sleep Cortical cells that carry weak memory traces seem to become particularly active when we sleep. As these cells fire and burst repeatedly, it is likely that they are going over what has been learned during the day. (Steriade, 2000)
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Memories and Sleep This rehearsal seems to go on all night as a region that encodes and holds short-term memories, called the hippocampus, relays what it has learned into the cortex (Steriade, 2000)
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Sleep Impacts Learning Readiness During sleep “sleep spindles," which are bursts of brain waves, may be networking between key regions of the brain to clear a path to learning. (Walker, 2010).
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Learning Readiness and Sleep These electrical impulses help to shift memories from the brain's hippocampus -- which has limited storage space -- to the nearly limitless prefrontal cortex's , thus freeing up the hippocampus to take in fresh data (new learning) the next day. (Walker, 2010) Sleep is the key to having a brain that is ready to learn
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Learning Readiness and Sleep "A lot of that spindle-rich sleep is occurring the second half of the night, so if you sleep six hours or less, you are shortchanging yourself and impeding your learning“ (Mander, 2011)
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Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep A 2012 study out of the University of Notre Dame confirms that sleeping directly after learning something new is beneficial for memory. (Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )
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Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep “it would be a good thing to rehearse any information you need to remember just prior to going to bed. (Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )
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Sleep and Creativity Sleep also seems to reorganize memories, extracting the emotional details and reconfiguring the memory to help us produce new and creative ideas. (Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger, R., & Born, J. (2004).
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Awake but Off Line New findings suggest that when the brain is sleep deprived even though the person is fully awake the neurons used for important mental task switch off. (Chiara Corelli,2011 Nature)
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Awake but Off Line This is likely to have consequences on mental performance and we likely function less well the longer we’ve been awake. (Chiara Corelli,2011, Nature)
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Less Sleep Equals Lower GPA 2012 study from the University of Arkansas Sleep and Learning Lab concluded that students that consistently got less than the recommended 7-8 hours of sleep each night had lower GPA’s than students with 7-8 hours of sleep.
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No Eight O’clock Classes The University of Arkansas study went so far as to recommend that colleges and universities consider not offering 8 am classes.
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Naps Help Learning Humans are supposed to nap daily. Twenty to thirty minutes is ideal. (Dement, 2009) A NASA study found pilots who napped for 27 minutes in the afternoon improved their flying performance by 34% . (Dinges, 2005). Dinges, D. (
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Oxygen Use by the Brain Although the brain represents only 2% of the body weight, it receives 15% of the cardiac output and 20% of total body oxygen consumption. ( Magistretti, Pellerin, 1996 )
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Oxygen Use by the Brain As learning challenges increases, so too does the brain's demand for energy in the form of oxygen and glucose. (Scholey, Harper and Kennedy, 2001).
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Oxygen and Learning To keep up with the high energy demand of the brain, oxygen delivery and blood flow to this organ is essential for learning (Stuart, 1996).
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Oxygen Use by the Brain Physical activity is a reliable way to increase blood flow, and hence oxygen, to the brain. (Eric Jensen, 2005)
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References REFERENCES http://www.brainadvance.org/ Allen, Corinne (Water and Brain health, Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). New York, New York: Longman. Andrews, J. D. (1980). The verbal structure of teacher questions: Its impact on class discussion. POD Quarterly, 2, 130-163. Arnsten, A. F. T., Paspalas, C. D., Gamo, N. J., Yang, Y., & Wang, M. (2010). Dynamic network connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 365-75. Aronson, J. (2007). In ‘The secret to raising smart kids’ by Carol Dweck. Scientific American. 29 Jul. Retrieved November 5, 2010 from http://homeworkhelpblog.com/the-secret-to-raising-smartkids/ Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. Atkins, D. (2010). Response to the article ‘Fixed mindset vs. growth mindset: Which one are you?’ by Michael Graham Richard. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from http://michaelgr.com/2007/04/15/fixed-mindset-vs-growth-mindset-which-one-are-you/ Banaszynski, J. (2000). Teaching the American revolution: Scaffolding to success. Education World: The Educator’s Best Friend. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr218.shtml Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, New York: W.H. Freeman. Baram, T. Z., Chen, Y., Dubé, C. M., & Rice, C. J. (2008). Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2903-11. Barrett, N. F. Cognitive styles and strategies. Unpublished. Retrieved January 22, 2011 from http://barrett-evaluations.com/_pdfs/cogstrategies.pdf Barton, J., Heilker, P., & Rutkowsk, D. (2008). Fostering effective classroom discussions. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from http://www.utoledo.edu/centers/ctl/teaching_resources/Fostering_Effective_Classroom_Discussions.html Bibb, J. A., Mayford, M. R., Tsien, J. Z., & Alberini, C. M. (2010). Cognition enhancement strategies. The Journal of Neuroscience, 10 November, 30(45), 14987-14992. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4419-1. Birbili, M. (2006). Mapping knowledge: Concept maps in early childhood education. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 8(2). Bjork, D. R. (1994). Memory and metamemory: Considerations in the training of human beings. Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.). 185-205. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Bjork, D. (2001). How to succeed in college: Learn how to learn. APS Observer, 14(3), 9. health: Key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(10), 489. : Alliance. Address: Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.
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References Bligh, D. A. (2000). What’s the use of lectures? San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York, New York: Longmans. Bohn, R., & Short, J. E. (2009). How much information? 2009 report on American consumers. Retrieved October 15, 2010 from http://hmi.ucsd.edu/pdf/HMI_2009_ConsumerReport_Dec9_2009.pdf Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Serlin, R., Hung, Y. H., & Kwon, J. (2007). Shrinking achievement differences with anchored math problems: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Special Education, 41, 31-49. Brain seeks patterns where none exist. (2008). Scientific American. Retrieved November 13, 2010 from http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=brain-seeks-patterns-where-none-exi- Brainard, J., & Fuller, A. (2010). Graduation rates fall at one-third of 4-year colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://chronicle.com/article/Graduation-Rates-Fall-at/125614/ Bransford, J., National Research Council, Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, National Research Council, & Committee on Learning Research and Educational Practice. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (ed.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. 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References REFERENCES http://www.brainadvance.org/ Allen, Corinne (Water and Brain health, Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). New York, New York: Longman. Andrews, J. D. (1980). The verbal structure of teacher questions: Its impact on class discussion. POD Quarterly, 2, 130-163. Arnsten, A. F. T., Paspalas, C. D., Gamo, N. J., Yang, Y., & Wang, M. (2010). Dynamic network connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 365-75. Aronson, J. (2007). In ‘The secret to raising smart kids’ by Carol Dweck. Scientific American. 29 Jul. Retrieved November 5, 2010 from http://homeworkhelpblog.com/the-secret-to-raising-smartkids/ Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. Atkins, D. (2010). Response to the article ‘Fixed mindset vs. growth mindset: Which one are you?’ by Michael Graham Richard. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from http://michaelgr.com/2007/04/15/fixed-mindset-vs-growth-mindset-which-one-are-you/ Banaszynski, J. (2000). Teaching the American revolution: Scaffolding to success. Education World: The Educator’s Best Friend. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr218.shtml Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, New York: W.H. Freeman. Baram, T. Z., Chen, Y., Dubé, C. M., & Rice, C. J. (2008). Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2903-11. Barrett, N. F. Cognitive styles and strategies. Unpublished. Retrieved January 22, 2011 from http://barrett-evaluations.com/_pdfs/cogstrategies.pdf Barton, J., Heilker, P., & Rutkowsk, D. (2008). Fostering effective classroom discussions. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from http://www.utoledo.edu/centers/ctl/teaching_resources/Fostering_Effective_Classroom_Discussions.html Bibb, J. A., Mayford, M. R., Tsien, J. Z., & Alberini, C. M. (2010). Cognition enhancement strategies. The Journal of Neuroscience, 10 November, 30(45), 14987-14992. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4419-1. Birbili, M. (2006). Mapping knowledge: Concept maps in early childhood education. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 8(2). Bjork, D. R. (1994). Memory and metamemory: Considerations in the training of human beings. Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.). 185-205. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Bjork, D. (2001). How to succeed in college: Learn how to learn. APS Observer, 14(3), 9. health: Key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(10), 489. : Alliance. Address: Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.
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References Crisp, B. (2007). Is it worth the effort? How feedback influences students’ subsequent submission of assessable work. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(5), 571-581. Cull, W. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215-235. Customer Service Training. McDonald’s developed by 3dsolve.com. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://www.3dsolve.com/ Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. Dale, E. (1969). Cone of experience, in educational media: Theory into practice. Wiman, R.V. (ed). Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill. Damasio, A. R. (2001). Fundamental feelings. Nature, 413, 781. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, New York: Grosset/Putnam. Davachi, L., & Bernhard, P. S., (2009). Mind the gap: Binding experiences across space and time in the human hippocampus. Neuron, 63(2), 267-276. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.024. Davachi. L., Tambini, A. & Ketz, N. (2010). Enhanced brain correlations during rest are related to memory for recent experiences. Neuron, 65(2), 280–290. De Byl, P. (2009). Is there an augmented reality future for e-learning? Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on e-Learning Algarve, Portugal 17-20 June. Retrieved March 12, 2011 from http://www.iadisportal.org/e-learning-2009-proceedings De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgeversmaatschappij. Deheane, S. (2009). Reading in the brain. New York, New York: Penguin Publishing. Devlin, K. (2002). In PBS literacy links program synopses, p.12. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from http://www.ketadultlearning.org/pdf/ged_synopses.pdf Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath. Diefes-Dux, H., Follman, D., Imbrie, P.K., Zawojewski, J., Capobianco, B., & Hjalmarson, M. (2004). Model eliciting activities: An in-class approach to improving interest and persistence of women in engineering. Proceedings of the 2004 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition. American Society for Engineering. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from http://www.iwitts.com/html/022diefes-dux.pdf Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010). Slow-wave sleep takes the leading role in memory reorganization. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 218. doi:10.1038/nrn2762-c2 Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). About serious games. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 4(1). Retrieved January 17, 2011 from http://www.abfirstresponse.co.uk/Aybee/serious%20games.html Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Bridging research and practice. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Doyle, T. (2008). Helping students learn in a learner centered environment: A guide to teaching in higher education. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus. Duclukovic, N. M., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Attending to remember and remembering to attend. Neuron, 49, 784-787. Duncan, N. (2007). Feed-forward: Improving students’ use of tutor comments. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(3), 271-283. Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. L. O., & Marois, R. (2006). Isolation of a central bottleneck of information processing with time-resolved fMRI. Neuron, 52(6), 1109-1120. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, New York: Random House. Dweck, C. S. (2007). Interview in Stanford News. Retrieved March 11, 2011 from http://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/february7/videos/179_flash.html Dweck, C. S. (2009). ‘Mindset: Powerful insights’ from interview on the Positive Coaching Alliance website. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://www.positivecoach.org/carol-dweck.aspx Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
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Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon [England]: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Horgan, J. (2009). The myth of mind control. Discover Presents the Brain, William C. Hostetter, NY. Koenig, O., Reiss, L. P., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1990). The development of spatial relation representations: Evidence from studies of cerebral lateralization. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 119-130. Lindsay, D., Hagan, L., Read, J., Wade, K., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. Psychological Science, 15, 149-154. Marian, V., Spivey, M., & Hirsch, J. (2003). Shared and separate systems in bilingual language processing: Converging evidence from eyetracking and brain imaging. Brain and Language, 86, 70-82. Brain Energy Metabolism An Integrated Cellular Perspective Pierre J. Magistretti, Luc Pellerin, and Jean-Luc Martin http://www.acnp.org/g4/gn401000064/ch064.html Water enhances mental function and is essential to survival Published on October 15, 2010 by Joshua Gowin, Ph.D. in You, Illuminated http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/you-illuminated/201010/why-your-brain-needs-water Feeding the Brain for Academic Success: How Nutrition and Hydration Boost Learning Philippa Norman MD, MPHhttp://www.healthybrainforlife.com/articles/school-health-and-nutrition/feeding-the-brain-for-academic-success-how The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks: Second Edition By Michael A. Arbib 2003
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Caffeine and Depression The analysis showed that the risk of suicide among adults drinking 2-4 cups of coffee (the equivalent of about 400 mg of caffeine) a day was 50% less than the risk for adults who drank decaffeinated coffee or one cup or less of caffeinated coffee. Drinking more than 4 cups of coffee wasn’t associated with lower suicide risk. The neurochemistry behind the finding makes sense. As discussed in a previous article, caffeine acts as an expert mimic of a chemical called adenosine in the brain and other parts of the body. Adenosine is a sort of checks-and-balances chemical produced by neurons as they fire throughout the day; the more adenosine is produced, the more the nervous system ratchets down activity, until we eventually fall asleep and reboot the process. By mimicking adenosine, caffeine blocks receptors in the nervous system from receiving the signals to decrease energy expenditure. When that happens, levels of the brain’s homegrown neuro-stimulants—dopamine and glutamate—increase, and we experience the brain stimulating effects associated with drinking a big cup of java. Those effects may be a potent counterbalance to depression for a segment of the coffee-drinking population.
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Do you ever complain that your students can’t think critically? Some recent research indicates that frontal lobes don’t fully develop until around ages 18-25. Just like other brain processes, however, experience is necessary to develop this region. Instead of expecting your students to just have this ability, help them develop it through scaffolding and explicit instruction. Also keep in mind that many of the activities we give students are actually activities involving working memory (what can be held “online” for a short period of time). If students fail to comprehend lengthy directions or long sentences or passages, it may not be a reading or language comprehension problem, but a working memory problem. Shorter sentences can be helpful.
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Next is the Language pathway. Of course we are using it in our language classrooms! Neuroscientists are convinced that the earlier a second language is learned in school the better, and express concern that the field of education has not changed significantly in response to this information. We know that becoming fluent enough in a second language to perform academic tasks in that language actually enhances one’s overall thinking, with improved cognition in classification skills, concept formation, analogical reasoning, visual-spatial skills, and creativity (Baker, 2001).
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The End